In 1978 a Soviet reconnaissance satellite, Kosmos 965 met a dramatic end. Re-entering Earth’s atmosphere in an uncontrolled fashion, it spun out of control and crashed at enormous speeds into Northwest Canada.
At the best of times this would have been less than ideal. This was at the height of the Cold War, however, and the Kosmos was no normal satellite.
It was nuclear-powered and carried a hefty uranium power cell. When it crashed it spread this nuclear material across Canada, leading to fallout and raising questions about the safety of nuclear-powered spacecraft.
Even more shockingly, Kosmos wasn’t the first or last nuclear-powered satellite to crash. But it is the most famous, and this is its story.
The Sky Is Falling
The Kosmos 954 was a Soviet Radar Ocean Reconnaissance Satellite, or RORSAT for short. The RORSAT program was a series of satellites designed for maritime surveillance during the Cold War. Equipped with powerful radar systems, these satellites could monitor ship movements and maritime activities across vast expanses of the earth’s oceans.
Aimed at tracking NATO movements, the advanced radar technology aboard Kosmos 954 could penetrate cloud cover and operate in all weather conditions, allowing for continuous surveillance. Besides its radar tech, Kosmos 954 was also equipped with and powered by a BES-5 nuclear reactor.
This compact, efficient power source enabled long-term operation in space. In many ways nuclear power is an extremely attractive option for long-term power requirements. That is, until something goes wrong.
Kosmos 954’s nuclear propulsion system was selected for its ability to provide consistent power output over extended periods, making it ideal for missions requiring continuous surveillance and data collection. Unfortunately, despite all their advanced technology the RORSAT satellites had one major weakness: a tendency to crash.
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Kosmos 954 launched on 18 September 1977 from Baikonur Cosmodrome attached to a Tsyklon-2 rocket. The launch, usually the most dangerous part, was a success, and the satellite was soon orbiting around the earth once every 89.5 minutes. It was thought that with its BES-5 nuclear reactor, fueled by 50kg (110 lb) of enriched uranium, the satellite would stay that way for some time.
However, by December of that year, the Soviets realized something was wrong. The satellite’s orbit had changed, and its once steady flight path had quickly become erratic.
In mid-December the Americans, via the North American Aerospace Defense Command had also noticed. They had assigned the satellite the designation 10361 and seen that it had changed its orbit altitude by up to 80 km (50 miles).
Neither side wanting an accidental catastrophe, secret meetings were hurriedly held between Soviet and American officials. The Soviets admitted to having lost control of Kosmos 954. Even worse, the safety system that was meant to eject the reactor core into a safe disposal orbit wasn’t working.
Things came to a head at 11.53 GMT on January 24, 1978, when the out-of-control Kosmos 954 reentered the atmosphere. It was found to be heading toward western Canada, but the Soviets at first tried to claim that the satellite was destroyed during re-entry and posed no danger.
Searches soon proved this to be untrue. The satellite had dropped debris over a 960 km (600 mile) stretch of Canada from Great Slave Lake to Baker Lake.
Recovery Efforts
The Canadian wilderness being littered with potentially radioactive debris was less than ideal. The Canadians and Americans teamed up to form Operation Morning Light, an effort to recover as much radioactive material as possible.
The joint teams covered an area of 124,000 square kilometers (48,000 square miles) on foot and by air from 24 January 1978 to 20 April 1978. They then carried out a second search from 21 April to 15 October of the same year. In total twelve large pieces of the satellite were recovered, ten of which were deemed to be radioactive.
The recovered pieces totaled less than 1% of the satellite’s fuel. But they were still deadly, one fragment alone having a radiation level of 500 R/h, enough to kill anyone exposed to it for a few hours.
In addition to the physical cleanup efforts, monitoring and assessment activities were conducted to evaluate the extent of radioactive contamination in the affected region. This included measuring radiation levels in soil, water, and air to determine the potential impact on the environment and local populations.
Under the 1972 Space Liability Convention Russia was liable to pay Canada reparations for any damages caused by its satellite. Canada billed the USSR a total of Can$6,041,174.70 for expenses with a little extra thrown in for future unforeseen expenses. The USSR argued the amount and paid roughly half that.
The failure also did the reputation of the USSR’s space program few favors. They had already experienced a similar failure in 1973 when one of their RORSATs crashed into the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Japan. Five years after Kosmos 954 failed another satellite, Kosmos 1402 fell out of the sky, dumping its core into the South Atlantic.
Following these repeated failures the Soviets were finally forced to get their act together and install a backup core ejection mechanism on their RORSATs. It’s a good job they did, when Kosmos 1900 crashed in 1988 it actually managed to eject its core into space.
Fallout
Thankfully, the fallout from the crash could have been a lot worse. The Kosmos 954’s core was 90% Uranium-235, which has a 703.8-million-year half-life.
This means it stays radioactive for an exceptionally long time. On the bright side, it’s an alpha emitter: an internal, not an external hazard. If someone were to come along and pick up a piece of the material, their clothes and skin would likely block the radiation. This means Canada wasn’t at risk of being decimated by nuclear fallout.
On the downside, if someone ingests Uranium-235 they’re in for a very bad time. This means one of the main concerns when it comes to unrecovered Kosmos 954 debris is environmental contamination.
These isotopes can remain radioactive for extended periods, leading to continued exposure to radiation for organisms in the ecosystem. Over time, this exposure can have detrimental effects on plant and animal populations, as well as ecosystems as a whole.
Furthermore, there are potential health risks for humans who may come into contact with contaminated areas or consume food and water from affected regions. Exposure to radioactive materials can increase the risk of cancer and other health issues, particularly if individuals are exposed over extended periods or at high levels.
The fallout from Kosmos 954’s re-entry prompted a significant cleanup effort and raised awareness about the long-term effects of nuclear-powered satellites. While Operation Morning Light successfully managed the immediate aftermath, concerns about environmental contamination and health risks persist.
The incident highlighted the importance of international cooperation in addressing the challenges of space exploration and underscored the need for stringent safety measures in nuclear-powered space missions. As we continue to explore and utilize space technologies, the lessons learned from Kosmos 954 serve as a reminder of the importance of responsible and sustainable practices in space exploration.
Top Image: The scattered parts of Kosmos 954 had to be recovered by hand. Source: US Federal Government / Public Domain.
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